Journal of Pacific Archaeology

It’s Not (Just) Cricket

Simon Bickler — 2023-12-21

Metal belt buckles featuring cricket motifs were popular in New Zealand and other British Empire territories during the mid-late 19th century, especially among military personnel and those associated with military redoubts. These buckles were also popular in the United Kingdom and Australia during the late 1850s to the 1870s. The military links with cricket helped spread the sport across New Zealand, with Imperial soldiers playing a crucial role in its early development. The popularity of cricket merchandise, including belts with elaborate buckles, was reflected in newspaper advertisements from the 1860s-1880s. These advertisements track the sport's popularity and the development of retail availability for the belts in New Zealand and Australia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The passion for cricket reflected in military, sports, and merchandising was intertwined with the colonial and settler ideologies of the late British Empire.

Indirectly Dating one of the Oldest Adze Quarries in the Hawaiian Islands Provides Insights into the Colonisation Process and Community Networks

Marshall Weisler — 2023-06-30

Chemically characterising stone tools in distant habitation sites and matching artefacts to quarries is some of the strongest evidence archaeologists have to define the spatial and temporal limits of ancient interaction networks. We present the chemical analysis of five basalt flakes from three sites on Moloka‘i, Hawaiian Islands: a well-dated colonisation period stratified coastal mound, a craft specialisation locale and an upland buried habitation. Wavelength dispersive x-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to identify the origin of the artefacts. Radiocarbon dating results indicate that the recently discovered Pu‘u Pāpa‘i (Moloka‘i) quarry was likely utilised from the colonisation period beginning in the 12^th century through to the late 1600s, making it one of the oldest, continuously used quarries in the archipelago. Aspects of island colonisation and community networks are discussed including the emergence of the elite control of resources.

Polynesian settlement of the Marquesas Islands: The chronology of Hanamiai in comparative context

Barry Rolett — 2024-02-25

Abstract

Hanamiai is a coastal dune site in the Marquesas Islands. The continuous cultural sequence extends from initial Polynesian colonization through European contact. We present a revised site chronology based on 14 new dates and Bayesian modeling of the entire series of 22 age estimates. Our results show that the start boundary for the earliest Hanamiai phase is AD 1160-1266 (95% credible interval). We also compared the Hanamiai chronology with the chronologies for seven other Marquesan sites. Finally, we estimated the tempo of Marquesan settlement and the age range for a transition in material culture from the Archaic to the Classic era.

The colonial buildings of the Mangareva Islands, French Polynesia

James L Flexner — 2023-02-12

In Historical Archaeology Francophone Catholic missions have been studied less commonly than Anglophone, Protestant ones. A survey of the islands of Akamaru, Aukena, Mangareva, and Taravai in the Mangareva Islands (Îles Gambier) of French Polynesia recorded over 100 standing structures related to Catholic missionary activities beginning in the 1830s. These structures form a unique assemblage of surviving colonial buildings in a Polynesian archipelago. They also reflect broader themes of colonial interference in Pacific Islander social and religious structures, landscape transformation, accommodation of new practices, and local forms of resilience and adaptation.

Plant microfossil and 14C analysis of archaeological features at Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand: Evidence for regional Māori use of introduced and indigenous plants

Mark Horrocks — 2023-02-12

The study of Māori agriculture has been limited by lack of evidence in the form of plant remains. Studies using a combined microfossil (pollen, phytolith, and starch) approach have shown promise, although have mostly focused on specific sites. Here we address these limitations by providing a relatively high geographic resolution microfossils and ¹⁴C study examining how several sites within a region compare to one another. Using samples from sediments, middens, and coprolites from six sites on Coromandel Peninsula, New Zealand, the results build on previous local studies, showing major landscape disturbance by people, and agricultural activity through the identification of Māori introduced cf. Colocasia esculenta, Cordyline cf. fruticosa, Dioscorea alata, and cf. Ipomoea batatas. Microfossils of possible gathered wild plants in the coprolites, namely Brassicaceae, Coriaria, Rhopalostylis, Rumex, and Sonchus, were also identified, complimenting the agricultural record. Ipomoea batatas and C. esculenta were identified at each of four of the six sites and in each of five of the seven coprolites, which could reflect their generally accepted dominance in Māori agriculture. Dioscorea alata starch at only one site is consistent with its status as a marginal crop. Starch of cf. Solanum tuberosum at one site reflects adoption of European cropping.

Death on the Goldfields

Peter Petchey — 2023-01-09

This paper presents the preliminary results of archaeological excavations at the Drybread Cemetery in Central Otago, New Zealand. The excavations were the third phase of a bioarchaeological research programme into the lives of early colonial-era settlers in Otago, following investigations at St. Johns Cemetery in Milton and the Adrossan and Gabriel Street cemeteries in Lawrence. The Drybread excavation investigated 13 graves, 10 of which contained human remains, and five of these individuals were Chinese. This paper describes the site history, the archaeological investigations and the preliminary results including the basic details of the individuals and their funerary traditions.

Book Reviews

Multiple Authors — 2022-10-06

An Exploratory and integrative study of Māori kurī (Canis familiaris) at the NRD archaeological site in Aotearoa New Zealand

Robyn T. Kramer — 2022-08-02

This multidisciplinary study analyzes kurī skeletal remains from the Northern Runway Development (NRD) archaeological site (AD 1400-1800) to develop an “osteo-history” and help us better understand 1) human-dog interactions; 2) the role kurī played in early Māori societies; and 3) to potentially use kurī as a proxy for human behavior at the site. We combine dental analysis with stable isotope analyses of bone and tooth dentine to investigate the kurī diet. Additionally, we use strontium isotope and mitogenomic analyses to explore the migration histories of the kurī and, by proxy, the humans they lived among at the NRD site during the late pre-contact period in Aotearoa. Through our exploratory investigation of the kurī skeletal remains, we found evidence of extensive interaction spheres with nearby and potentially distant communities. Furthermore, the kurī were healthy, demonstrated minimal tooth wear, and they subsisted heavily on a protein-rich, marine diet. This study demonstrates that variability is present in the origins, diet, health, and treatment of kurī at a single locality. Because of this, we believe it is important to include kurī in future archaeological investigations in Aotearoa to help build our foundational understanding of variability across sites and regions.

Entangled Histories

Hilary Howes — 2022-03-16

The discipline of ethnology, now more commonly known as social and cultural anthropology, developed from a variety of research fields. Although the establishment of ‘four-field anthropology’ is generally attributed to Franz Boas in 1904, it was already common in the second half of the nineteenth century for traveller-naturalists, missionaries and colonial authorities who were actively involved in ethnology to engage in other disciplines at the same time, notably physical anthropology, archaeology and linguistics. Often their findings in one discipline coloured their conclusions in another; for example, the belief that a particular population or ‘race’ was ‘primitive’ on account of physical or cultural characteristics could influence which theories about the prehistory of that population or ‘race’ were considered plausible and which were dismissed as impossible. This paper examines three German-speaking researchers – Jan Kubary, Otto Finsch, and Paul Hambruch – who, at different points in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, engaged with the prehistory of Nan Madol, a monumental stone complex and ceremonial centre of eastern Micronesia, and reached quite different conclusions. These three case studies demonstrate how closely the history of ethnology in the Pacific is intertwined with the histories of archaeology and physical anthropology.

Grassroots badly burnt

Stuart Bedford — 2022-03-06

Here we salute the exceptional contributions of five ni-Vanuatu, who passed away over the last year, to the archaeological understanding of Vanuatu and the wider Pacific over a 50-year period. They were all at one time members of the Vanuatu Cultural Centre’s unique network of Filwokas (fieldworkers) who are involved in protecting, promoting and preserving the country’s cultural heritage. Their careers spanned the pre and post-Independence (1980) period when archaeological research itself was transformed from a largely colonially controlled exercise to being fully locally coordinated and regulated with an emphasis on grassroots awareness.

Quantification of stone artefacts assemblages in Aotearoa New Zealand

Rebecca Phillipps — 2022-05-12

Many of the popular models of pre-European Māori settlement rely on the quantification of stone artefact abundance when made from different raw materials. Relative proportions of these materials provide the basis for inferences about mobility, trade and exchange, and social interactions. However, a number of methods for calculating artefact abundance exist with these reflecting different aspects of artefact completeness, fragmentation, and artefact assemblage formation. Using examples of artefact assemblages made from basalt, chert, and obsidian, from two sites in Te Ika-a-Māui, Aotearoa (North Island, New Zealand), different methods of calculating raw material proportions are explored including those based on frequency, size, and the technology of flake production. Measures of stone artefact assemblage completeness are then considered using artefact size distributions and comparisons with the Weibull and fractal power law distributions. We emphasise the differing goals of abundance measure calculations and the assumptions their uses entail.

Experimental Voyages by Two Traditional Canoes of the Kula Area, Papua New Guinea, One Real and One Virtual, Provide Insights into the Study of Ancient Sailing Technology of the Pacific Ocean

Loughlin Dudley — 2021-12-21

We compare identical voyages by two traditional Kula sailing canoes in the Massim, Papua New Guinea. One voyage was made by a real canoe in 2002 and the other voyage by a virtual canoe, retrospectively in 2020. Both voyages were made in the same recorded weather. The sailing capability of the two canoes was closely matched. The simulated voyage establishes that theoretical modelling of canoe sailing performance can be realistic and applied to the study of archaeological canoe remains. In addition, the voyage of the real canoe, as recorded by Damon (2017), demonstrates the hazards and difficulties of sailing directly downwind in such craft. The results of the two voyages provide insights into the on-going study of early voyaging in the Pacific Ocean.

'Buried with his boots on': An integrated life course case-study of a liminal burial from the New Zealand goldrushes

Hallie Buckley — 2022-01-26

The New Zealand goldrushes of the mid nineteenth century saw an influx of, mostly, men surging into the Otago region in search of riches. Times were tough and the men had to cope with harsh weather and dangerous work practices to survive. Many lost their lives and most of these men remain anonymous. This paper presents a detailed life-course case study of a middle-aged man who lived, and died, in this biosocial landscape. The integration of osteological, chemical and molecular data reveals a life of hardship in his early years, improved nutrition from adolescence, and poor oral health as an adult. He also experienced injury as an adult and likely periodic nutritional deficiency in the last few years of his life. Morphological and molecular analyses attest to this man being of European ancestry, despite local stories of him being a ‘black man’ who drowned. His grave was liminal, located far from any formal cemetery, and the grave and been disturbed, possibly due to looting. While his identity remains unknown, his earthly remains encapsulate a typical early gold diggers life with experiences of poor beginnings and an ignoble, often anonymous end.

Death and Dark Deeds on the Goldfields: The Tragedies of an Unknown Miner.

Peter Petchey — 2022-01-26

In 1983 the grave of an unknown man was excavated in the Cromwell Gorge, Otago, New Zealand, as part of the archaeological programme of the Clutha Valley Development Project. This project culminated in the construction of the Clyde Dam, a large hydro-electric dam across the Clutha River. At the time of the excavation it was noted that the grave had been disturbed, and the skeleton was sent to the Anatomy Department at the University of Otago for study. A short report was produced, identifying the individual as a tall European male. Because no next of kin could be determined, the skeletal remains stayed in the Anatomy Department.

Advances in bioarchaeological and archaeological methodology mean that a more detailed and nuanced study of this individual is now possible, and this research is presented in this paper and its companion (Buckley et al. this issue). In this paper, the life, death and burial, along with the circumstances and details of the grave disturbance are discussed. The material culture and manner of burial are typical of the nineteenth century goldfields frontier context, while the disturbance of the grave leads to the conclusion that this was a deliberate act of grave robbing, possibly to search the dead man’s pockets for gold. There are no known records of such crime on the goldfields, but the archaeological evidence is unequivocal, shedding light on a previously unsuspected darker side of goldfields life.

Mapping prehistoric sailing routes to Lizard Island and beyond

Laurent Dousset — 2021-10-18

Migration and exchange, as well as the circulation and diffusion of cultural, material and linguistic traits are dependent on the technical means, the environmental conditions and the human capacity to actually navigate and reach distant islands and coastal areas. Simulations of the navigational travel potential of Pacific Islanders have been undertaken in 1973 (Levison, Ward and Web) and 1992 (Irwin). However, these were lacking comprehensive wind data, were too approximate in methodological respects and did not calculate travel speed of vessels in relation to force and direction of winds. Based on new simulation software developed by one of the authors (Anne Di Piazza), to which mapping and geographical representation software was added by the other author (Laurent Dousset), this paper illustrates the potential for extensive human circulation to and from Lizard Island into the Solomon Sea in open sea voyages. The simulations show that the Coral and Solomon Seas were (or even must have been) places of dense but specific and interlinked navigational networks, and demonstrate that voyages from the Massim area and even from the Solomon Islands to the coast and islands of Queensland were not only possible, but were likely.

Voyaging within Aotearoa New Zealand: pre-Contact transport of resources to and from Te Tai Tokerau

John Booth — 2021-12-21

In certain periods of pre-Contact (pre-1800 AD) times, northern New Zealand’s Te Tai Tokerau was, arguably, as much connected by long-distance waka voyaging to other parts of Aotearoa as had islands of the Hawaiki Zone in the South Pacific been linked to the archipelago of Aotearoa early in its settlement. This korero summarises the evidence by examining transport into Te Tai Tokerau from the south of lithics such as obsidian and argillite, and the transport out of Te Tai Tokerau of lithics, as well as perishables like toheroa (Paphies ventricosa). Although it is seldom possible to categorically differentiate direct procurement of resources from long-distance trade or down-the-line exchange, it is clear that early dispersal of bulky or weighty items at any significant scale to locations well-removed from their native context would invariably have involved significant oceanic passaging. My results corroborate outstanding voyaging and navigational prowess among at least early Māori – skills as highly developed as those of any others in the world at the time, but incisive evidence for discourse between specific, geographically-well-separated bubbles of interacting peoples requires more data.

Book Reviews

Joshua Emmitt — 2021-04-12

abstract

Visual and geochemical characterisation of Late Cretaceous-Eocene cherts from eastern New Zealand: a preliminary study

Phil Moore — 2021-10-18

Sedimentary chert from the eastern North Island and Marlborough region of the South Island, New Zealand (collectively referred to here as the Eastern Chert Province, ECP), was utilised by indigenous Maori communities from the 14^th to 18^th century. The chert is associated with Late Cretaceous-Paleocene siliceous shale of the Whangai Formation (Whangai chert) in the North Island, and the Late Cretaceous-Eocene Mead Hill Formation and overlying Amuri Limestone in Marlborough (Kaikoura chert). There is also an isolated occurrence at Tora, in south-eastern Wairarapa (Tora chert). Visual/petrographic attributes of these chert types are very similar, though some samples from Marlborough are calcareous and contain dolomite rhombs. Chemical analysis of 59 geological samples, by wavelength-dispersive XRF and portable XRF (pXRF), shows that the Whangai and Kaikoura cherts can be largely differentiated on the basis of Zr, Sr and Rb concentrations, but that the Tora chert is chemically indistinguishable from the Whangai chert. A separate group is recognised within the Kaikoura chert, characterised by higher Sr, Ca and Ba values, but there seems to be limited potential for the identification of specific sources within the ECP.

Pottery Production and Exchange in the Last Millennium in the Western Solomon Islands: a ceramic sequence for Choiseul

Charles James Tekarawa Radclyffe — 2021-04-12

Introduced to the western Solomon Islands over two and a half millennia ago, pottery-making in the region has a long but patchily documented history. Previous research has focused predominantly on the earliest incised and applied relief ceramic wares associated with the arrival of Austronesian migratory groups in the Late to immediate Post-Lapita period (<2800 calBP). Reported here are findings from stylistic and compositional analyses carried out on incised and impressed pottery recently recovered in the region which date to within the last millennium. Methods employed include a formal analysis and a combination of macroscopic fabric analysis and geochemical analysis using a scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS). The results provide insight into the development of a poorly understood period of pottery production and exchange in the western Solomon Islands, and ultimately contribute towards reconstructing a more complete ceramic record for the region.

New archaeological data from the abandoned island of Alofi (Hoorn archipelago, Western Polynesia)

Christophe Sand — 2021-08-22

The Hoorn Archipelago in Western Polynesia, comprising the islands of Futuna and Alofi, was in May 1616 the place of the very first long encounter between European navigators and Polynesians in the Central Pacific. The potential consequences of the two week stop of the Dutch sailors J. Lemaire and W. Schouten in Leava Bay have been a neglected topic of study until today. No proper consideration has been given to the possible introduction of foreign diseases during the close contacts and consequently to the hypothesis of a severe demographic impact well before the end of the 18th–19th centuries. In order to study the long-term demographic history of the archipelago, an archaeological research program was started on the island of Alofi. New archaeological surveys and spatial studies fulfilled in different parts of Alofi in 2019 have started to show the diversity and concentration of surface remains, testimony of a former dense settlement pattern. This paper highlights the main results of the first field season, allowing us to test the hypothesis of a massive depopulation on Alofi following first contact in 1616.

The archaeology of missions and missionisation in Australasia and the Pacific

Stuart Bedford — 2020-09-08

This collection, dedicated to Angela Middleton, comprises eight papers centred around missions and missionisation located across a vast region primarily composed of sea and islands. Case studies span mainland Australia, the Torres Strait and the far corners of the Pacific, including Vanuatu (the former New Hebrides), the Tuamotu Islands, Guam and New Zealand, the place where Angela’s career and influence began. The complexity and depth of Christian missionisation across Australasia and the Pacific is demonstrated by the time depth and variety of Christian denominations that are represented in these contributions. They include Spanish and French Catholics, in Guam and the Tuamotu archipelago respectively, the Protestant London Missionary Society in the Torres Strait, Wesleyans in western Australia and New Zealand, and Presbyterians in Vanuatu.

Refining the Chronology of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) Settlement

Mara Mulrooney — 2021-02-10

P. C. McCoy and colleagues carried out a comprehensive survey and test excavations at selected sites in the southwestern portion of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in 1968. This included the excavation of a rectangular house (hare; 1-187) and a nearby stone-lined earth oven (umu pa‘e; 1-186) on the eastern rim of Rano Kau. A single radiocarbon date of AD 770 ± 230 from 1-187 was subsequently accepted by some researchers as support for the theory of early island settlement but contested by others. This paper presents results of the re-dating of these sites as part of a collaborative research program that also includes the complete digitization, auditing, and archiving of McCoy’s (1968) previously un-cataloged site survey records and analyses of selected artifacts and eco-facts collected during the 1968 survey. The newly acquired radiocarbon dates reported here provide insights into the longstanding debate regarding the timing of the initial settlement of Rapa Nui within a broader East Polynesian context and assist with the development of a refined model of island settlement, while speaking to the utility of conducting new analyses on archived samples in archaeological research.

A Typology of Erasure

Jeremy Edwin Ash — 2020-09-03

Agents of the London Missionary Society sought radical change in the worlds of Torres Strait Islanders and communities in southern central New Guinea. As they had elsewhere in Oceania, LMS agents buried, burned or collected powerful objects, destroyed cultural sites and introduced new cosmic beings. Clearly, the act of erasure was violent and destabilising. But the act was also generative of new expressive spiritscape and cosmic dialogues. In this sense, missionary interventions held unintended consequences. This paper examines mission texts, ethnographies and oral histories to chart missionary interventions in Torres Strait and adjacent areas in southern central New Guinea. I do so in an attempt to clarify the grammar and form of these early mission encounters to (1) understand the effect of material interventions in Torres Strait Islander seascapes, (2) consider Islander agency in the evangelical encounter, and (3) draw attention to the materiality of this process.

The bright archaeological light that was Angela Middleton

Stuart Bedford — 2020-08-04

States without Archaeological Correlates? A Report from HawaiÊ»i

James M Bayman — 2021-04-07

Two recent archaeological narratives of ancient Hawaiian society apply a neo-evolutionary approach to political development to argue that a primary state evolved prior to contact with Europeans in the late 18th century. Our analysis demonstrates that this finding is based on interpretations of indigenous oral traditions and contact-period historical accounts but lacks archaeological warrant. The Hawaiian archaeological record does not yield the conventional neo-evolutionary correlates of statehood. Moreover, archaeological evidence for the neo-evolutionary model of ladder-like transformation is also lacking. A chronological analysis of Hawaiian political development inferred from the archaeological record reveals that it was a seamless process, with no evidence of a disjuncture when a statehood event might have occurred. We advocate a historical approach to investigating political development in Hawai‘i that articulates directly with the archaeological record, and is sufficiently developed and general to be applicable elsewhere in the world.

Revisiting warfare, monument destruction, and the ‘Huri Moai’ phase in Rapa Nui (Easter Island) culture history

Robert J. DiNapoli — 2020-10-11

Warfare is widely accepted as a transformative factor in human history. However, as warfare is not inevitable in human groups, archaeologists must critically assess the empirical evidence for war and its importance in the past. Here, we reevaluate the culture history of Rapa Nui (Easter Island), often interpreted as a case of warfare resulting in social upheaval. Common accounts hold that, prior to European contact, clan groups eventually ceased making moai statues and statue platforms (ahu), battled with obsidian spears, sought refuge in fortified caves, and toppled rivals’ moai in a prolonged period of internecine warfare termed the “Huri Moai” phase. Examining this culture historical framework and evidence for warfare and monument destruction, we find a lack of support in archaeological or historical records for a pre-contact Huri Moai phase. Overall, these findings highlight how archaeologists must carefully evaluate assumptions about the prevalence of violence and war in the past given the evidence for each case. In the case of Rapa Nui, our prior understanding of the island’s culture history is in need of fundamental revision.

‘Death and his body-servant’: health, architecture and missionary endeavour at the Anelcauhat Mission House, Vanuatu

Martin Jones — 2020-09-14

Remaining healthy was a major consideration for both indigenous and European peoples in the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) during early contact. While local communities were often devastated by introduced disease, new missionaries sought practical ways to overcome the impact of tropical ailments that they considered to undermine the effectiveness of their activities. From the early 1850s onwards, Presbyterian missionaries in the southern New Hebrides began to construct ‘healthy’ homes, of which the surviving masonry mission house at Anelcauhat, Aneityum (1852-3) forms the earliest standing example. This paper draws on the results of both above- and in-ground archaeological recording to examine how the surviving structure reflects nineteenth-century ideas about illness and well-being before discussing the wider trajectory of such house construction, and associated matters connected with local communities, health and architecture that potentially impacted on missionary endeavour.

Bringing Christ to Whaingaroa

Warren Gumbley — 2020-08-06

Te Nihinihi Mission Station was the second of the Wesleyan mission stations at Whaingaroa (Raglan) replacing the earlier station on the north side of the harbour with a dedicated and distinct mission station on the southern side of the harbour in 1839 which operated until 1881. The mission was the third in a chain of missions established by the Wesleyan Mission Society along the west coast of the North Island and in the interior of the Waikato. The Wallises at Te Nihinihi mission were active and popular with Māori, but during their time the environment changed from one dominated by Māori to one colonised with land purchases by Europeans. Shortly after the Wallises left, land confiscation followed the militarisation of the area during the British invasion of the Waikato. The history of the Whaingaroa Mission is, like most of the other west coast Wesleyan missions, only sketchily understood with no archaeological investigations undertaken prior to the work described here. The mission layout itself describes the integrated yet separated nature of Whaingaroa mission and hints at the changing status and relationship of the mission within the colonising process of Whaingaroa/Raglan Harbour.

Erased Places? Revealing the Mission network of the Swan River Colony, 1829-1879.

Janet Osborne — 2020-09-03

This paper reviews the institutions established for First Nations (Nyungar) children and young adults (16 missions and other residential institutions) operating in the first 50 years of the Swan River Colony, Western Australia (1829 – 1879), and their potential as sites of archaeological investigation. Focusing upon two institutions operating within this network, at Perth, run by the colonial government and Wesleyan Methodists between 1833 and 1844, it asks to what extent these missions operated as part of a network of surveillance and control of Nyungar lives. Evidence for the archaeology and the history of these places is examined and specifically their varying spatial characteristics, that were exploited by administrators in attempts to colonise and control Nyungar inmates. The role of such missions in the landscape of frontier colonialism and the colonial society and economy is explored.

Rethinking Hinterlands in Polynesia

Nick Belluzzo — 2020-05-20

Hinterland studies demonstrate the capacity to highlight nuance in regional and temporal variation in the Polynesian past. This Special Issue highlights a group of papers which focus on recent topics and themes drawn from case studies situated in different parts of the Polynesian region. In this article, we summarize the history of hinterland studies, introduce the articles and themes from the Special Issue, and, finally, consider the future of hinterland studies, providing thoughts on a compelling but under-studied avenue of inquiry.